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REVIEWS AND NOTES

HORACE AND HIS AGE: A Study in Historical Background. By J. F. D'ALTON, M.A., D.D., Professor of Ancient Classics, St. Patrick's College, Maynooth. London: Longmans, Green & Co.

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PERHAPS the chief merit of this, Maynooth's first notable contribution to the bibliography of the ancient classics, is the thoroughness and accuracy and the wealth of documentary evidence with which Dr. D'Alton has worked up his thesis. Horace has always been, and no doubt will continue to be, the most popular of Latin lyric poets. But when read in the light, and in the spirit, of the book before us, these lyrics, as well as the rest of the poet's works, will take on fresh colours, and we shall view them not so much as delightful productions of a highly trained technique, but rather as the living messages of a man who moved in the complex environment of the nascent Roman Empire-a man, therefore, who had a mission; religious, philosophical, political (though these three with Horace are often one)-a man who meant what he said, and wishes, in the main at least, to be taken seriously. For the proper interpretation of our poet we require, indeed, that 'vivid apprehensiveness' and that rapid incandescence of the imagination,' without which we should miss his most delicate touches, and many a hidden link in his chain of thought. But something more than this is needed. Dr. D'Alton claims, and proves successfully, that without a clear conception of the historical setting in which Horace lived and wrote, we shall inevitably fail to do him or ourselves justice. The result of his labours, as presented in this book, brings home to us the twofold truth that history illuminates many a dark passage that previously eluded full comprehension; and, on the other hand, that Horace himself, to the properly initiated, is frequently no uncertain guide amid the complexities of the stirring times in which he lived. Dr. D'Alton performs the ceremony of initiation most successfully, showing in his treatment of the theme not only the breadth of view and comprehensive survey of the historian, but also that sympathetic intuition which characterises the true lover of a great literature. The titles of the chapters will indicate fairly well the scope of his work. He discusses Horace and Roman Politics' (Chap. i), 'The Augustan Revival' (Chap. ii), 'Horace in Religion and Philosophy' (Chap. iii), 'The Period of the Epistles' (Chap. iv), 'Horace and Social Problems' (Chap. v), 'Horace and Popular Beliefs' (Chap. vi), Literary Criticism' (Chap. vii). These headings, as I have said, indicate the field of study before us, but they give no adequate idea of the number of interesting problems, literary and historical, which are touched upon in the course of the work. One must read the book through carefully to appreciate fully the benefit which VOL. X-30

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Dr. D'Alton has conferred on lovers of Roman literature, and lovers of Horace in particular. He discusses incidentally, for instance, a multitude of questions which have for long attracted the attention of classical scholars. In these discussions he has availed to the full of the wealth of scholarship that has been expended on this field of research, both by British and Continental classicists; and in arriving at his own conclusions he always shows considerable critical acumen, and an independence of thought which, if rare, is as desirable to-day in such matters as it was in Horace's own time

'nec desilies imitator in arctum,

Unde pedem proferre pudor vetet aut operis lex.' (A.P. 134-5.) There are few topics, indeed, concerning Horatian lore which are not dealt with, and ably dealt with. The author tells us in his Preface that at first he had not intended to include the chapter on the Augustan Revival. We are glad that he changed his mind, for this is one of the best chapters in the book. Nor, in our opinion, has he fallen into the error, which he dreaded, of wresting the facts into harmony with any preconceived theory about the influence of the Revival inaugurated by Augustus. If we may single out certain passages for special praise, we should mention the clear exposition which Dr. D'Alton gives of the national aspect of the policy of Augustus; the vivid picture which he draws of the first Emperor and his innate conservativeness'; the directness with which he explains the effect of Greek influence, first in raising, humanizing and beautifying, and then in disintegrating Roman religion. There was nothing new, perhaps, to be said on these subjects, but what Dr. D'Alton has to say upon them he says with a remarkable crispness and lucidity, which certain other writers would do well to imitate. And all this was necessary in order to approach the study of Horace with the proper perspective. After digesting these views we understand more clearly the powerful influence which Augustus must have exercised over the poet, and the change whereby, from being a Republican, he became a staunch Imperialist. Horace's wavering in Philosophy between Epicureanism and Stoicism receives due attention, and we are reminded that his stoicism was not the stern rigorism of the early exponents of the system, nor yet the stoicism of the later Empire, which was hostile to the Imperial regime, and partly indeed the outcome of it; but a modification that was in fact a sort of 'Eclecticism' in which Horace embraced those elements of the Stoic teaching which were calculated to further the ends of the Revival in which both he and his Imperial master were so interested. But if Horace was ready to change his philosophical-as apparently he was to change his political-tenets to suit the spirit of the age, he was not always successful in putting his views in verse, so as to form, I will not say a system-for this he never attempted-but even a consistent and relevant unity. The well-known ode, Ad Fortunam' (I. xxxv), is characterised by Dr. D'Alton, and justly so, we think, as 'a strange medley of incoherent ideas' (p. 111), and as quite subversive of those principles of religion and morality which underlay the Augustan Revival. This minuteness of criticism shows that

in this, as in every other, part of his book Dr. D'Alton sifts and weighs his evidence very carefully. He views the question from every standpoint, and with commendable caution refrains from jumping to conclusions. He arrays a whole series of considerations in support of his plea and is always careful to quote his authorities; and these are always in the forefront of scholarship. In dealing with Horace's religion-such scant traces of it as, distinct from philosophy, are visible in his writings-our author proceeds with the same care and caution, illuminating his subject again by a reference to the dominant influences of the age in which Horace lived. Of particular interest in this matter are Horace's avowed admiration for certain ethical phases of the Stoic teaching, his love for the old Roman deities of country life, and his hero-worship offered so fulsomely to the person of Augustus

Augustus Cæsar, thou on earth shalt be
Enthroned a present Deity.

Other subjects dealt with in more or less detail are-The Roman Land Question, Magic, the Origin of Roman Drama, Horace's attitude towards Alexandrianism, and towards the conventional literary criticism of his day. Our author, while admitting that Horace apparently fell largely into the traditional groove, at the same time gives him credit for a good deal of independent criticism, especially when dealing with the Drama. Finally, he points out a peculiar state of affairs: an indication in Horace, on the one hand, that there was considerable dramatic activity in his day, and an equally clear indication, on the other, that the Roman theatre-going public did not want drama.

We have said enough to convince the reader that Dr. D'Alton's is a book of real worth. We heartily wish it all the success which it undoubtedly deserves, and trust that it is but an earnest of still greater work to come. The paucity of Irish output in such matters is rather deplorable. It is due, no doubt, partly to the stunted condition in which this country had been left for years in regard to University education; and partly, perhaps, to the tendency to look on our neighbours across the Channel as our masters in learning as in everything else. Is it too much to expect that in the new conditions which have seen the rise of a new Irish University, we may gradually develop a 'Sinn Féinism' in scholarship, and compete in friendly rivalry with the great names in England and on the Continent? At any rate books like Dr. D'Alton's will go a long way towards bringing about that 'consummation devoutly to be wished for.' Gearóid O Nualláin.

PLOTINUS: The Ethical Treatises, being the Treatises of the First Ennead, with Porphyry's Life of Plotinus, and the Preller-Ritter Extracts, translated from the Greek by Stephen M'Kenna. London: Philip Lee Warner.

To all who are interested in Neo-Platonism this translation of the First Ennead of Plotinus will appeal. The rise of such a system so late in the Christian era was in itself remarkable, and proves how enduring

were the traditions of Greek speculation. Plotinus, though not the founder of Neo-Platonism, will always be regarded as its chief exponent, and in his day, by reason of a forceful personality and brilliant teaching, he seemed to be the herald of a second spring in Greek philosophy. If originality can be claimed for him, it consists especially in some fresh interpretations of Platonic concepts, and in the union of the mystical thought of the East with ideas already familiar to the schools of Greece. Probably the element of ascetism and the deep vein of mysticism so characteristic of the system will help to keep alive its interest for many minds. ‘I long,' says Plotinus, 'to give back the Divine in myself to the Divine in the All.' The human soul, derived by a series of emanations from the Absolute, can attain its highest destiny by turning away from the things of sense, and resting in contemplation of the Primal One.

A translation of Plotinus is no light undertaking. It is a struggle with abstruse and difficult ideas, and a terminology that at times might well make one despair of being able to render adequately the author's meaning in another tongue. Plotinus, as Porphyry tells us, was himself careless of consistency, one who was rapt rather in the speculation of the moment than aiming to build up a coherent system. The co-ordination of his teaching and its arrangement into Enneads (sets of nine treatises each) were due to the devotedness of his admiring pupil, Porphyry. Mr. M'Kenna shows an intimate acquaintance with the work of previous Plotinian scholars, but his independence of judgment is not thereby fettered. He sets before himself certain definite ideals in his translation, and, while aiming at the complete expression of his author's meaning, he endeavours, too, to reproduce in fitting language the sublimity of his thought. The result is that he gives us a translation at once elegant and accurate. He has added a brief but useful commentary on the more difficult points of Plotinian terminology. One might perhaps object to a few of the translator's own terms as somewhat cumbrous and overelaborate, and I regard 'act' as too colourless a word to convey all the meaning of 'Energeia.' But with these reservations, this volume will stand as the work of a competent scholar, who may be counted upon to do full justice to the remaining portions of Plotinus. Mr. M'Kenna has done well in concluding with a translation of the Preller-Ritter extracts, giving a conspectus of the Plotinian system.

J. F. D'ALTON.

LE CANON ROMAIN DE LA MESSE ET LA CRITIQUE MODERNE. By Rev. A. Vigourel, S.S. Paris: Lethielleux, 1915.

THE origin and the primitive form of the Canon of the Roman Mass is one of the most engrossing as it is one of the most difficult questions in the whole field of liturgical study. Who was the author of our present Canon? What the date of its origin? Where its beginning and end? and-coming to the text itself-What was its original form? the order of its parts? These are the leading questions that confront the student of the Roman Canon, and not to a single one of them can a definite answer be given.

The question of the order of the various elements of the Canon is the great question of all. It seems clear to anyone who examines the text that the order has been somewhat dislocated. There are obvious hiatus-an absence of logical sequence in the elements of the prayer, which is especially striking when we compare the Roman Canon with the Antiochene and Alexandrine Anaphoras. The apparent absence from our Canon of the Epiklesis or Invocation of the Holy Ghost-which invariably occurs in the Eastern Liturgies and in the Gallican rite also the order of the great Intercession and the position of the diptychs within the Canon, present further difficulties of a formidable character.

We find these peculiarities of the Roman Mass in the first complete text we have that of the Gelasian Sacramentary (probably about the seventh century). The famous account of the celebration of the holy mysteries given us by St. Justin Martyr throws light upon the structure of the Canon in the second century and shows us the liturgy as it was before the change took place that was to constitute the special Roman rite. But it is within the period from the second to the seventh century that this great change in the order of the liturgy took place--and that period is, to a large extent, shrouded in darkness and mystery. In the second century Rome used much the same liturgy as other churches, East and West; by the seventh she had evolved from that her own particular rite, differing in important points from any other. Justin Martyr and the Gelasian Sacramentary represent the extreme ends on either side of this development. What happened between? Who made the changes? It is in answer to these questions that all manner of theories have been put forward.

Among these theories proposed to explain the origin and order of the present Roman Canon, we may distinguish two main lines of thought. There is the school of French Benedictines which looks to the Gallican rite for the solution of the problem, and the school of most German scholars which looks to the Eastern rites (Antioch and Alexandria). One of the most distinguished members of the former school is Dom Cagin, O.S.B., who in the fifth volume of the Solesmes Paléographie musicale (published in 1896) defended a view of the origin and order of the Roman Canon which reverses the hitherto accepted idea of the relation between the Roman and Gallican rites. It is with this theory of Dom Cagin that Father Vigourel's book deals.

In the first part of the volume-which though the briefest is by far the most interesting and important-Father Vigourel, who is an enthusiastic admirer of the Benedictine savant, gives us, in very readable form, the substance of Dom Cagin's theory; and sketches for us a description of the method-so analogous to that of the stratigraphist-by which his conclusions were reached.

Dom Cagin's basic principle is that the Roman and Gallican liturgies belong to the same family-he strove to prove that all Western liturgies have a common origin, a Roman nucleus. He sought for a formulary of which all the liturgies are but developments. His search among the Latin Canons led him to the Anaphora of Verona, and this Anaphora

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